4, 28 Social isolation is a special concern for older adults, as contact with friends decreases with age. While social ties sometimes transmit negative health behaviors or add stress, 5, 27 social isolation is usually detrimental to health and increases mortality. One study of first-generation immigrants found that social support acted as a barrier against the harmful physical and mental health effects of discrimination. 25 The protective nature of social support may be especially important for populations that experience discrimination or exclusion.
24 In a study conducted on the relationship between psychosocial factors and atherosclerosis (plaque in the arteries), social support contributed to lower atherosclerosis levels. 11, 23 Social support can therefore both directly benefit people and indirectly buffer them from risk factors that might otherwise damage health. 1 Both of these pathways can affect biological functioning in the cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune systems. 11, 23 For example, social support may help people stick to healthier diets 23 and reduce emotional stress. High levels of social support can positively influence health outcomes through behavioral and psychological pathways. 20 Similar patterns are seen for smoking 21 and drinking 22 behaviors. Social networks spread social capital, 8 but they can also spread health behaviors and outcomes, a phenomenon known as “social contagion.” 19 For example, if an individual’s friend, sibling, or spouse is obese, the individual’s likelihood of also becoming obese increases. 16 Social institutions like religion and the family are common sources of social capital and social control, as well as social networks and social support. 14 Collective efficacy is associated with better self-rated health, 15 lower rates of neighborhood violence, 14 and better access to health-enhancing resources like medical care, healthy food options, and places to exercise. 12, 13Ĭollective efficacy, an aspect of social capital and social cohesion, is grounded on mutual trust and describes a community’s ability to create change and exercise informal social control (i.e., influence behavior through social norms). They also found that the relationship between income inequality and mortality may be partially explained by reductions in social capital as income inequality increases. 12 The authors found that all 4 measures of social capital were associated with mortality. For example, one study examined the link between 4 measures of social capital (perceived fairness, perceived helpfulness, group membership, and trust), income inequality, and mortality. Social capital is an important marker of social cohesion, and it has significant ramifications for health. 10, 11 This summary will review the positive and negative health effects social cohesion has on an individual’s life. 10, 11 Social networks are sources of multiple forms of social support, such as emotional support (e.g., encouragement after a setback) and instrumental support (e.g., a ride to a doctor’s appointment). 9 Individuals have access to social capital through their social networks, 8 which are webs of social relationships. Social capital deals with shared group resources, 6, 7, 8 like a friend-of-a-friend’s knowledge of a job opening. 6 One indicator of social cohesion is the amount of social capital a community has. Social cohesion refers to the strength of relationships and the sense of solidarity among members of a community. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Relationships are conceptualized through terms such as social cohesion, social capital, social networks, and social support. Relationships are important for physical health and psychosocial well-being.
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